The ancient Inca computer the Spanish destroyed

Quipus, or talking knots, were record-keeping devices for ancient Andean civilizations. Image: Quipo in the Museo Machu Picchu, Casa Concha, Cusco.jpg " by Pi3.124, used under CC BY-SA 4.0 /Cropped and compressed from original.

Have you ever wondered how the massive Inca empire functioned without a traditional written alphabet? They used an incredibly advanced piece of tech to manage their society, but it was tragically wiped out by invaders.

What exactly is a quipu?

Instead of ink and paper, ancient Andean cultures used a unique system called quipus (or talking knots). Dating all the way back to 2600 BCE—a staggering 4,000 years before the Incas even showed up—these intricately knotted strings of cotton or camelid fibers were essentially early computers. Documentary filmmaker and author Kim MacQuarrie points out that they were highly portable, sophisticated counting machines that stored data and communicated vital information across the empire.

The keepers of the knots

The Incas managed a sprawling civilization stretching up to 3,000 miles by sending out specialized accountants known as quipucamayocs. These dedicated keepers of the quipu would record census data, resources, tax information, and even calendar details using a complex decimal system. By reading single knots for tens and hundreds, long knots for numbers two through nine, and figure-eight knots for the number one, they could tabulate massive amounts of data and bring it all back to Cusco. It was the ultimate universal method of communication for a region with many different spoken languages and topographies.

How the Spanish destroyed an ancient wonder

This brilliant "operating system" worked flawlessly for thousands of years. Then came the Spanish conquest between 1532 and 1572. When the Spaniards arrived, they didn't just introduce their own spoken and written language; they systematically dismantled the Inca way of life. By imposing their own systems and ignoring the indigenous knowledge base, the Spanish eradicated the quipu tradition.

Because of their ruthless conquest, much of the knowledge of how to read and fully utilize these amazing devices is permanently lost. Some historians even believe the knots contained musical notes or storytelling cues, but we may never fully know. The Spaniards didn't just conquer land; they wiped out an ancient supercomputer and effectively destroyed the intellectual heart of the Inca civilization.

It is devastating to think about the lost knowledge. Let's not forget the incredible brilliance of the ancient Andean people, even as we mourn the history that was stolen from them.

(Inspired by the historical records and insights shared by Peru for Less on 30 November 2020)

How the Medici dynasty survives and thrives today

Prince Ottaviano de’ Medici di Toscana di Ottajano, grand duke of Toscany and Grandmaster of the Order of Saint Stephen Pope and Martyr, born in 1957, is a modern Italian nobleman and a prominent member of the Ottajano branch of the historic House of Medici. This lineage traces its roots to Ottaviano de’ Medici and Francesca Salviati, who were the parents of Pope Leo XI. Demonstrating a commitment to his family’s enduring legacy, Prince Ottaviano serves as the president of the Associazione Internationale Medicae (International Medici Association). He is also recognized as one of the founders of “Save Florence”, an initiative dedicated to preserving the rich cultural heritage of the city of Florence. He further contributed to documenting his family’s history by publishing Storia della mia dinastia in 2001. Prince Ottaviano has three children: Cosimo Maria (born 1991), Guglielmo (born 1992), and Lorenzo (born 2009). More recently, in March 2025, he was involved in the inauguration of the Medici Museum in Livorno.

When you walk the streets of Florence, the Medici presence feels etched into the very stone of the city. Their name conjures images of immense wealth, Renaissance masterpieces, and a profound cultural awakening that changed Europe forever. But it is a common misconception that this story ended in the 18th century. The true running thread of the Medici narrative is not one of eventual decline, but of remarkable survival. Today, that unbroken lineage is actively represented by Prince Ottaviano de’ Medici di Toscana di Ottajano, born in 1957, proving that while empires and borders shift, a deeply rooted dynasty endures.

The bankers who shaped a continent

To understand the weight of Prince Ottaviano's modern role, we have to look at the foundation his ancestors built. Rising from agricultural origins, the Medici transformed financial capital into unparalleled political dominance following the establishment of the Medici Bank in 1397. They were the ultimate architects of the Renaissance, producing four Popes and two queens of France.

Their grip on Florence was formalized into sovereign royalty when Pope Pius V issued a decree on 27 August 1569, elevating Cosimo I to the title of Grand Duke of Tuscany. This established a hereditary monarchy that would shape Italian politics and culture for centuries.

Evolution and endurance over extinction

History books often dwell on the narrative that the dynasty "died out" when Gian Gastone, the last Medici Grand Duke of the main line, passed away on 9 July 1737. But framing this as an extinction ignores the family's incredible foresight and resilience. The Medici did not die; they evolved and branched out.

While Gian Gastone's sister, Anna Maria Luisa, masterfully secured the family's cultural immortality through a Family Pact—legally binding the new rulers to keep the vast Medici art collections in Florence forever—the actual bloodline and dynastic rights were already thriving elsewhere. Decades prior, collateral branches like the Princes of Ottajano (founded by Bernardetto de' Medici) had established themselves in southern Italy. They preserved the family's genetic continuity and legal claims, ensuring the Medici flame was kept safely alight outside the immediate political crosshairs of Florence.

A stolen throne and an undeniable claim

When the main grand ducal line concluded in 1737, the survival of the dynasty faced a massive geopolitical test. According to an imperial decree issued by Emperor Charles V back in 1530, the headship of Florence was granted to the Medici "in perpetuity," explicitly stating that the title should pass to the nearest male relative if the ruling line failed.

Under the strict rules of male primogeniture, the rightful Grand Duke of Tuscany was Giuseppe de’ Medici Ottajano (1). However, 18th-century European Great Powers used Tuscany as a bargaining chip to settle their own conflicts, handing the Grand Duchy to Francis Stephen of Lorraine via international treaty. The legitimate dynastic rights of the Medici Princes of Ottajano were ignored by the Habsburgs, but the Medici never relinquished their historical claim. The lineage simply outlasted the political theft.

The living legacy of Prince Ottaviano

This brings us to the present day. The historical continuity of this legendary family is fiercely maintained by Prince Ottaviano de’ Medici di Toscana di Ottajano. As the direct male descendant of the Ottajano branch, he is the living embodiment of a heritage that refused to fade into obscurity.

Far from being a mere historical figurehead, Prince Ottaviano actively champions the family's legacy. He serves as the president of the International Medici Association and is a founding force behind "Save Florence," an initiative passionately dedicated to protecting the city's rich cultural heritage from modern pressures. His commitment to the truth of his ancestry was further cemented by his 2001 book, Storia della mia dinastia, and his recent involvement in the inauguration of the Medici Museum in Livorno in March 2025.

Furthermore, Prince Ottaviano legitimately asserts his position as the Grand Master of the Sacred Military Order of Saint Stephen Pope and Martyr. Founded on 1 February 1562 to defend the Mediterranean, and famous for its role in the Battle of Lepanto on 7 October 1571, the Order’s leadership was explicitly tied to the Medici bloodline by Papal authority—a bond that international treaties cannot simply erase.

The Habsburgs may have temporarily governed Tuscany, but they were always viewed as external diplomats. The Medici are the soul of the region. Through the tireless work and enduring lineage of Prince Ottaviano, the dynasty demonstrates that true nobility is not just about holding a throne—it is about surviving the centuries to protect and honor a legacy that shaped the world.

Website: www.de-medici.com

(1) The lineage of the original ruling line, beginning with Duke Alessandro who was assassinated in 1537, was already complicated by illegitimacy; Alessandro was born to unmarried parents, likely Giulio de’ Medici, nephew of Lorenzo the Magnificent.

The French courtesan who blackmailed King Edward VIII

Have you ever heard of the woman who shot her husband in the back three times at London's most luxurious hotel and walked away a free woman? Meet Marguerite Alibert. Before there was Wallis Simpson, there was Marguerite—a French courtesan who captured the heart of the future King Edward VIII, only to find herself at the center of a murder trial that threatened to bring down the British monarchy.

From Parisian poverty to high society

Born into poverty in Paris in 1890, Marguerite Alibert quickly learned how to survive and thrive. After a brief stint with nuns and working as a domestic servant, she entered the glamorous, dangerous world of Parisian courtesans. With her sharp wit, beauty, and ambition, she continuously reinvented herself, mingling with wealthy and powerful men. She transformed her life, eventually becoming a prominent socialite and marrying into Egyptian aristocracy.

A royal affair with the Prince of Wales

During World War I, Marguerite met a young, impressionable Prince Edward (the future King Edward VIII). The two embarked on a passionate affair, and Edward wrote her numerous intimate letters. Though their romantic involvement eventually ended, Marguerite was not one to be easily cast aside. She held onto those compromising letters for years, knowing their immense value.

Murder at the Savoy hotel

By 1923, Marguerite was married to Ali Kamel Fahmy Bey, a wealthy Egyptian aristocrat. Their brief marriage was fraught with conflict. On 10 July 1923, during a stay at the swanky Savoy Hotel in London, a violent argument broke out in their suite. In the heat of the moment, Marguerite shot her husband dead. She never denied pulling the trigger, but she claimed she acted in self-defense after enduring abuse. Suddenly, she found herself facing a murder charge and the very real possibility of execution.

The trial of the century and a royal cover-up

Marguerite's trial at the Old Bailey became one of Britain's greatest courtroom spectacles. But there was much more at stake than just her life. The royal family realized that if Marguerite was pushed too hard, the scandalous letters from the Prince of Wales might be exposed in court. A secret deal was allegedly struck: if she returned Edward's letters, her sexual past and connections to the royal family would remain unmentioned, and her freedom would be guaranteed.

The strategy worked. Edward's PR team went into overdrive to keep his name completely out of the proceedings. Following a brief deliberation, the jury acquitted Marguerite of both murder and manslaughter.

A legacy shrouded in mystery

After her astonishing acquittal, Marguerite returned to Paris, where she lived lavishly, charmed wealthy men, and even played small parts in movies. She lived until the age of 80, dying in 1971. To this day, questions remain. Was she a desperate, abused wife, or a masterful manipulator who knew exactly how to use the secrets of the British establishment to secure her freedom?

Strange tales of missing British lords

 

The blended image (centre) was said by the Claimant's supporters to prove that Roger Tichborne (left, in 1853) and the Claimant (right, in 1874) were one and the same person

Throughout history, the sudden disappearance of aristocrats has spawned endless rumours, international searches, and bizarre cases of mistaken identity.

The Lord Lucan rumour in New Zealand

Decades after his infamous disappearance on 8 November 1974, rumors surfaced that Lord Lucan had been found living in the North Island town of Marton, sleeping in a vehicle alongside a pet possum. Newspapers such as The Dominion Post reported that a television crew and Sidney Ball, a former Scotland Yard detective, were actively investigating the claims.

The man at the center of the story was Roger Woodgate, a local English photographer and former Ministry of Defence worker. Neighbors who were involved in a local dispute claimed Woodgate resembled the fugitive peer and possessed an upper-class English accent. However, the resolution was swift. Woodgate quickly dismissed the rumors, pointing out that he was five inches shorter than Lucan, a decade younger, and had a visible gap in his teeth that the missing lord lacked. Detective Ball confirmed almost immediately that Mr. Woodgate was not Lord Lucan, putting the false lead to rest.

The Tichborne claimant and the butcher from Wagga Wagga

In an even more elaborate historical case, a butcher living under the alias Thomas Castro in Wagga Wagga, New South Wales, stepped forward in the 1860s. He claimed to be Sir Roger Tichborne, the missing heir to a massive family fortune and an English baronetcy. Sir Roger had vanished at sea off the coast of South America in 1854 and was widely presumed dead.

However, Roger’s grieving mother refused to believe he was gone and placed advertisements around the world seeking information. Orton answered the call and traveled to England, where he was remarkably accepted by Lady Tichborne as her long-lost son.

The rest of the family flatly rejected his claims, leading to one of the longest and most famous legal battles in British history. The claimant was ultimately exposed as Arthur Orton, a butcher's son from Wapping, London, who had emigrated to Australia. On 28 February 1874, he was convicted of perjury and sentenced to 14 years of penal servitude.

Anatomical analysis

The header image is the "Tichborne Tryptich," created for the famous 19th-century Tichborne trial to compare the missing heir Roger Tichborne (left) with the imposter who claimed his identity, Arthur Orton (right). While the middle composite uses grid lines to align their pupils and mouths, an anatomical breakdown reveals they are two distinct individuals:

• Ears: The most definitive difference is the earlobes. The man on the right has prominent, detached earlobes. The man on the left has attached earlobes, a structural difference that was a critical piece of forensic evidence in the actual court case.
• Nose: The middle composite exposes that their noses do not map onto one another. The width of the nostrils and the underlying cartilage structure of the nasal bridge differ significantly.
• Eyes and brows: The left portrait features rounder, wider eyes with a different brow bone and eyebrow arch. The right portrait has heavier, narrower, and more hooded eyelids.
• Mouth and jaw: The shape of the lips differs, with the left subject having a distinctly fuller mouth. Even accounting for age, weight gain, and facial hair, the underlying bone structure of the jawline does not match.
• Facial geometry: To create the middle image, the portraits had to be artificially scaled to force the eyes to align on the grid. Despite this manipulation, the overlapping "ghosting" effect clearly shows mismatched cheekbones, cranial shapes, and overall facial proportions.

The sudden vanishing of Benjamin Bathurst

Another baffling case involves Benjamin Bathurst, a British diplomat and aristocrat who completely disappeared on 25 November 1809 in Prussia. While traveling under an alias during the Napoleonic Wars, Bathurst stopped at an inn in the town of Perleberg. According to accounts, he walked around to the front of his carriage to examine the horses and simply vanished into thin air. His sudden disappearance sparked numerous theories, and the story even became a popular subject for science fiction writers who suggested supernatural causes. However, modern research indicates that he was almost certainly murdered for his valuables, as his expensive fur coat was later discovered hidden nearby.